Literature Review- Allison Wynbissinger

I read literature reviews and commented in Group 4//Embodied Learning (Lorrina Smith) and Group 5//Narrative Learning (Marti Suddarth).

Experiential Learning Theory Literature Review

Allison Wynbissinger

Ball State University

EDAC 634 Fall 2016

Introduction

Experiential Learning Theory is the concept that adults are able to gain practical knowledge and meaning from their real life experiences.  Adult learners will accumulate both a greater amount and variety of experiences the longer that they live, thus they are able to use what they have encountered or gone through for the function of learning.  These experiences may have been direct and have engaged them not only mentally but also physically and emotionally, but they also might have been fictitious role-plays, or reliving past experiences, or through meditating on their past experiences to make sense of them (Merriam, 2007).  However it comes about, experiences are never confined events that happen in a vault.  Learners must strive to connect their current reality to those situations in the past and thus impacting those that may come in the future.  Per Lindeman (1961), “The resource of highest value in adult education is the learner’s experience,” and it becomes “the adult learner’s living textbook…” As facilitators of learning, it is imperative that we acknowledge the value of our students’ experiences and the ways that they can be used to mold them.  We must use this “living textbook” to its fullest; that these life events not go to waste.  The purpose of this literature review is to delve into the general themes of experiential learning as found in specific research and the ways that these main ideas can inform practitioners in their day-to-day work.

General Themes

The human experience is a source of learning. 

As John Dewey (1938) wrote, “All genuine education comes about through experience.”  There is a lot of literature that focuses on adult experiences being a source of learning, as well as a number of theorists and scholars who explore how these can be transferred into knowledge and how we can make meaning out of real-life events.  Take for example the Living by Learning Project, where medical students’ perspectives and experiences about life lived as an older adult in a nursing home was used to provide life-altering medical education.  Throughout and following their experience of living in a nursing home, students were able to build knowledge about geriatrics and older adults by journaling about their feelings, emotions, thoughts, and observations.  This was done in an effort to “provide students an approach to discovering meaning and understanding from their experiences and observations and eventually applying these to their practice of medicine,” (Gugliucci & Weiner, 2013).  As they point out, reflection is imperative; it is the critical connection in the experiential learning process that will create a change in student attitudes, skills, and knowledge.

We must reflect on our experiences in order to learn from them.

It is not enough to just have experiences.  Everyone has experiences, but not everyone learns from them.  It is absolutely imperative that we pause to think about what we have gone through in order to gain value from it.  “Learning needs to be evaluated by the learner and take on meaning as part of the overall experience,” (Dernova, 2015).  It is only after reaction to our actions that learning can take place.

Again when we look at the Living by Learning Project, the journaling that the students did provided the participants in this 12 day study the chance to utilize the reflective processes proposed by Schön (1987).   Reflection-in-action was used to reshape what they were doing while they were actually doing the field work in the nursing home while reflection-on-action was used after their fieldwork had ended and they thought through the situation (Merriam, 2007).  These reflective practices helped these medical students to navigate surprises that arose at the time and to make judgments during this experience, and after consciously going back to reevaluate the experience and consider what they can do differently in future similar situations, it will guide them to make better judgements in situations to come.  As Baud (1992) expressed, “Learning is always based on prior experience and any effort to activate new learning should take into account the prior experience,” so we must connect current experiences with previous experiences to help our students analyze these new experiences.

Previous experiences affect how learners approach new experiences.

            Experiential learning not only allows people to gain practical knowledge but also wisdom.  This wisdom can help adults to make different, hopefully more effective decisions in the future when they face new, unknown situations and real world problems (Dernova, 2015).  Adult learners need to be able to see what is similar between their new and previous experiences and they also need to be able to identify what is different and why that is. It is through that process that they can learn to recognize varying circumstances that require them to make adjustments in order to overcome challenges.  The full learning cycle formulated by Kolb (1984) can be difficult to achieve “because within the cycle new knowledge and experience often contradict each other. That is why reflection and abstraction are crucial in the relearning process to create newer meanings based on the contradictions between students' prior and new experiences,” (Baasanjav, 2013).

Take for example, Gugliucci & Weiner’s study (2013): they found that the observations the students made during their experiential learning process in the nursing home were effective in implementing changes to the ways those same individuals would come to practice medicine differently in the future, as real life practitioners. “Learning not only changes with increasing experience, but previous experience affects how learners approach new experiences, ultimately affecting their ability to learn (quantitatively and qualitatively) different things,” (Yardley et al, 2012).

Experiential learning can be facilitated but not forced.

Adult learners need to be able to self-direct their learning and be autonomous in that; so while educators can create unique learning opportunities, we cannot force our students to participate.  Furthermore, adult learners likely have specific goals in mind so their learning outcomes should be used in practice and considered priority, while the relationship between the teacher and student should be a partnership, functioning as a cooperative activity.  “In modern society with constant changes the adult learning requires shifting the emphasis from teaching to learning that is from transferring the information to facilitating the experience accumulation…” (Dernova, 2015). 

We see this cooperative activity in the Living by Learning Project as it was created and offered to medical students, who volunteered to conduct this noncredit experiential learning research project. Dr. Gugliucci served in the research mentor role through their stay in the nursing home, but neither she nor anyone else required or forced students to participate in this project.  Moreover, she did not occupy the role of the imparter-of-knowledge, but rather a facilitator, a catalyst, or a coach (Merriam, 2007). “The theory of experiential learning has become a challenge to well-shaped ways of thinking about education as a program, a teacher as an expert, and knowledge as a theory,” (Dernova, 2015).  We can see that Dr. Gugliucci could have lectured at the medical students about the importance of getting down to eye level with their patients, touch, body position, and the tone of their voice, or even required them to do readings on these skills but the research shows that the impact through living these experiences out, were much more impactful on the learners.

Implications

“The experiential learning provides students engagement into direct experiences close to real-world problems and situations. To make the decision, students need to analyze what they know, what they do not know, and how to learn it. Secondly, the instructor facilitates, not directs students’ progress. Thirdly, experiential learning ensures strong motivation to learn. It motivates students to reflect on their existing knowledge and make it deeper through reflection; transfer their prior learning experience to new context; acquire new ideas, principles, and skills. Eventually, these skills help students to become self-directed life-long learners,” (Dernova, 2015).

            As educators, we have the opportunity to guide our students to a new realm of understanding, both in their current phase of life but also in future activities in personally meaningful ways.  Any help that we can give them to relate their personal experiences to their future goals, careers, etc. is surely appreciated and likely expected by adults.  We need to seek out ways that we can introduce and utilize experiences in our course.

Another core condition of learning is participation (Yardley et al, 2012).  We need to aide our learners in feeling connected; if they experience a sense of exclusion, it will hinder their learning and not only risk them failing to gain knowledge but could be counterproductive.  Our learning environments needs to be a safe place for students to share about experiences and talk openly and honestly about their  beliefs and views.  It falls on us, as the facilitator, to set up boundaries and expectations that cultivate this safe space, and do uphold those standards so that students feel a genuine sense of security in processing about their life experiences.

Speaking of processing, practitioners need to include a set time for reflection.  Reflection can take place in a number of ways- individually, as a group, one-on-one with the facilitator- no matter the format it takes students need to receive time to do it.  Assuming they will reflect on their own is not always an accurate assumption to make, so we need to carve this time out in our syllabus/curriculum, so that they can learn the value of it and put it into practice outside the “classroom.”

            Finally, we also must be learner centered.  For example, an online class gives our students a lot more flexibility and control over the learning process.  They are the person who decides when, where, and from what sources they will learn and this style of instruction forces the teacher to give more attention to the student’s interests, learning styles, and prior experiences.  Instructors are continually performing different roles to meet the needs of different students. “In an online environment, the role of a teacher changes from a knowledge disseminator to a mentor, and a facilitator of the learning process where students take charge over the learning process,” and we are tasked with overcoming the challenge of isolation which can manifest in the online learning community (Baasanjav, 2013). 

Reflection

One of the most significant parts of this assignment for me was gleaning new ideas on how to incorporate experiential learning into my personal practice and the powerful impact that it will have on learners.  Much of the literature I digested had direct quotes from students on the influence this had on them.  While I do try to incorporate role-playing and soliciting student reflection on past experiences, the literature I read provided the encouragement I needed to creatively consider new and even more radical (and I believe impactful) ways to put the concepts we learned about, into practice.

Regarding process, it would be strongly encouraged to begin early.  In hindsight, I would begin by thoroughly reviewing the syllabus and the expectations of this assignment, and then review it again, and then re-review it.  I would then urge students to spend time reviewing Dr. Chang’s recommended examples of literature reviews, look at previous semesters’ blogs, watch the YouTube video on how to write a literature review and take advantage of Dr. Chang’s comments on previous students’ literature review papers (screencasts).  These things will give a clear picture of what the assignment should look like and how to create a timeline to be successful.  Next, I would suggest reading chapter 7 in the assigned text, Learning in Adulthood, which is regarding the topic of “Experience and Learning,” so that the student can formulate a table with the main themes/ideas she or he identified and how those can be applied to practice.  From there, I would begin searching for literature around the topic of experiential learning, which aligns with the main themes that were identified.  Move forward with reading the articles and allow for time to re-skim the articles to analyze key aspects that connect the research together.  Conclude by writing the literature review, elaborating on the general themes and processing through the implications that experiential learning has on both educators and students and providing suggestions to impact practice.

 Table

	Main Theme/Ideas	Application
Idea 1	The human experience is a source of learning.	Educators must plan and provide experiences that will help their students grasp learning concepts.
Idea 2	We must reflect on our experiences in order to learn from them.	Students must be given opportunities to think back on their experiences, both individualistically and with co-learners, in order to interpret their meaning. To live an experience is not enough, there has to be a period of reflection to discover implications.
Idea 3	Previous experiences affect how learners approach new experiences.	Students need the space to evaluate similarities and differences between their new and previous experiences and formulate plans for approaching new situations
Idea 4	Experiential learning can be facilitated but not forced.	Educators need to arrange activities that foster learning through experience, however they cannot force students to be genuinely engaged, this is a personal responsibility of each learner.

 

Bibliography

Baasanjav, U. (2013). Incorporating the experiential learning cycle into online classes. Journal of

Online Learning and Teaching, 9(4), 575.

Dernova, M. (2015). Experiential learning theory as one of the foundations of adult learning

practice worldwide. Comparative Professional Pedagogy, 5(2), 52-57. doi:10.1515/rpp-2015-0040

Gugliucci, M. R., & Weiner, A. (2013). Learning by living: Life-altering medical education

through nursing home-based experiential learning. Gerontology & Geriatrics Education, 34(1), 60-77. doi:10.1080/02701960.2013.749254

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S. & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A

comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Yardley, S., Teunissen, P. W., & Dornan, T. (2012). Experiential learning: Transforming theory

into practice. Medical Teacher, 34(2), 161-164.

Heather Allen Literature Review

I commented on the literature reviews of Allison, Bridget, and Will in the experiential learning blog as well as Scott, Shawn, LaKrisha, and Stephanie in self-directed learning.  I commented on the reviews of Jessica, Keersten, Ray, and Lecia in transformational learning, and Laverne in narrative learning.

Heather Allen

Literature Review

EDAC6354

Introduction:

Experiential learning has been described as learning by doing, or learning by example.  The learner must be actively engaged in the learning process at every opportunity.  The University of Texas at Austin’s Faculty Innovation Center says, “Experiential learning is any learning that supports students in applying their knowledge and conceptual understanding to real-world problems or situations where the instructor directs and facilitates learning.  Experiential learning teaches students the competencies they need for read-world success.”  It is designed to motivate students to learn, as it is learning where they can see the relevance.  It also provides practice and feedback.   (https://facultyinnovate.utexas.edu/teaching/engagement/experiential-learning/defined) 

Experiential learning is based on Kolb’s 1984 Cycle of Learning and Learning Style Inventory (LSI), and Dewey’s concept of Experiential Education.  In Kolb’s model, the focus is:

• Knowledge – gathered from a combination of formal learning, hands-on experimentation, and past experience
• Activity – real-world application and the opportunity to test new knowledge
• Reflection – with peers and mentors, allowing learners to create new knowledge that may also allow them to develop, or modify, closely-held concepts and ideas

According to a Northern Illinois University paper from the Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center, Dewey’s model “focuses on problem solving and critical thinking rather than memorization and rote learning.” (http://www.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/experiential_learning.pdf)

            To further explain, the University of Minnesota published a paper called Experiential Learning Theory: Previous Research and New Directions, which has, what I believe is one of the better short definitions.   The paper says that experiential learning is meant “to emphasize the central role that experience plays in the learning process.” (http://www.d.umn.edu/~kgilbert/educ5165-731/Readings/experiential-learning-theory.pdf)

General Themes: Curriculum Development and Approaches

There are three things to consider when creating an experiential learning event – activity, variety, and direction. (Silberman, 1)  “The critical question is not what topics to cover but what you want participants to value, understand, or do with those topics.” (Silberman, 27)

Ideally, you are able to assess participants prior to the learning event.  Once you have assessed the group, particularly if you are able to do so before the training, it allows you to develop the training relative to the specific participants, obtain appropriate case studies, and to determine the overall content. 

As you design, it is important to remember that participants generally prefer self-directed learning over group learning led by a professional.  This means you, as the facilitator, may need to step back for some parts of the training and allow trainees to move the dialogue (and the agenda) forward.  Flexibility is the key.  Self-directed learning, however, is not learning alone.  (Silberman, 32)  Students should be working in groups, but these groups will direct where things go.  You will merely be responsible for building the framework.

You need to determine what materials will be necessary, the setting in which you will be teaching, and what you want the end to be.  If you build with the end in mind, you will be more successful.  Sometimes even telling your students the last step first is an appropriate method.

Developers should look to multiple approaches.  The design should include opportunities for group participation and role plays, creating active learning.  You should not just be considering what content the trainees need to learn, but also how to keep their interest throughout the event.  This does not, however, negate the value of the traditional lecture format.

The trainer needs to consider themselves less of a teacher, and more of a simulator and facilitator.  As a simulator, it is the trainer’s job to present and lead discussions that are student-driven.  As facilitator, you guide participants through structured activities.  We must be flexible with the lesson plan once the program has been designed, and vary the location and environment, whenever possible.  It is the trainer’s job to motivate the participation. (Silberman, 240, 248)

Implications

Instructional designers and facilitators must remember that the content level should be moderate, and not packed.  The materials need to be paired down to the need-to-know, focusing on curriculum that is lean, and activities that present topics, provide the opportunity to reflect, and give the skills needed to apply it in their real world.  There needs to be a balance of the ABC’s (Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive).  Participants should be able to draw upon their past experiences and learn from one another, and apply what they are learning to more challenging tasks.  The focus should always be on problem-solving. (Silberman, 1-3)           

You should introduce simple concepts before a deep dive, build in demanding activities that follow easy ones, and close with the, “So what?” so the learner takes ownership of the information.  You also need to build in back-up activities for when an activity falls flat, or when you are ahead of schedule.   You may also want to build in next steps for outside of the training.  This could include asking employees to keep a diary, or to teach others back on the job who did not attend the training.  (Silberman, 165)  You might also consider a contact, where the trainees create the agreements themselves, or with a partner.  The trainer can then collect the agreements and mail out to participants at a later date as a self-monitoring/evaluating tool.  Alternately, you might have students create action plans, which define outcomes and steps to achievement.  Or the next steps could be as simple as goal setting. (Silberman, 166-167)

During the course, build in agenda checks, mini subject reviews, and opportunities to evaluate the learning experience.  (Silberman, 231) Experiential learning events should include:

• Role playing, which can be a very general, but scripted, scenario where participants can “act out” the details.  (Silberman, 96-100)  Or, you can ask that trainees develop their own skit based on previous experience.   Use your students as observers, or audience members.  (Silberman, 106-109)  Mental imagery can also pair well with role playing.  (Silberman, 109-110)
• Games and simulations may seem contrived, but they can still have a place in an experiential classroom.  They should be stacked with games and activities that are more serious, and real-world in nature.  (Silberman, 100-101)
• Writing tasks, such as short responses, long essays, or worksheets can be an effective tool, if trainees are provided with very clear instructions. (Silberman, 114-115)
• Projects, such as research, teach-backs, and task force projects, where students are given a planning task to create something, such as a Job Aid, to be used on the job later. (Silberman, 120-122)

The problem arises when the teacher knows how to lecture, but that is all they know.  If the teacher is used to lecturing, demonstration may be a natural extension of that.  Then, add in a case study where the teacher can serve more of a guide role.  Allow students to read and discuss, creating a group inquiry model where the teacher can then lead a debriefing.  Or the instructor can have trainees search for information and share what they have learned with others.  (Silberman, 91-93)

It might sound counterintuitive, but you can involve learners in a lecture.  You can ask listeners to seek out particular bits of information during the lecture, and maybe do a teach-back within small groups.  (Silberman, 68)  Designers can build the lecture portion of the training to look more like a press conference, or put students in groups to allow for group processing of the information.  (Silberman, 71-72)  Bookend the lecture time with a post-lecture case problem or participant review, and end that section with an experiential activity.  (Silberman, 73)

For the lecture model to be effective, other pieces should be in place:

• Have an introductory exercise, which should be activity-based, such as an icebreaker or teambuilding exercise.
• Lead with a story, analogy, or interesting visual.  This can create the building blocks of the training as you add to this with lecture and supporting activities interspersed later.
• Use case studies and examples as a way of review of the building blocks.  Case studies can also lead the way to role plays.
• Give the learners test questions, such as true/false, before you even get into the presentation.  Without going over the answers, explain that the answers will be revealed during the course of the training. 
• Preview the content by providing an opening summary and perhaps some key terms that will be encountered in the training.  Remind students that you will be addressing real-world problems that will provide them with advanced knowledge and/or skills.  Make sure you create application activities.  Throughout the training, take every opportunity to praise student efforts, and take interest in them as individuals.  You should be explaining the objective and selling the benefits of the training.  It is your job to get the trainees enthusiastic about participating.
  (Silberman, 56-64, 241)

The trainer should be facilitating discussion.  You can do this by paraphrasing what the trainees are saying, elaborating on key points, and respectfully disagreeing with points for purposes of deepening the discussion.  You should mediate any disagreements between participants and summarize the discussion. (Silberman, 234)

So, you have designed an amazing training with experiential theories in mind.  And you are totally killing it in delivery.  Yet, you have a hostile student who threatens to derail it all.  What do you do?  Here is a quick primer on some of the challenges you might encounter:

• For impatient students, make sure you start on time. 
• For trainees who believe they already know this stuff, give them credit, and admit you don’t have all the answers.  Don’t get caught up in power struggles if the person becomes argumentative.
• For participants who don’t believe they are compatible with you, encourage an atmosphere of open communication, and let them know that you consider them an equal.
• For students who just flat-out don’t trust you, let them know you want to hear what they have to say.
• For participants who go off on tangents, try, “That seems to be a different issue,” and then move on.
• For those having private conversations, move closer to them and ask one of them a question. (Silberman, 213-218)

You can also help alleviate this type of disruption by setting up group norms at the beginning.  You can let students know of the rules up front, or you can use a tool we use in my office, and have trainees come up with their own rules before class starts.  This increases buy-in. 

Here are some useful norms to consider:

• Encourage honest expression
• Agree to confidentiality
• Encourage risk-taking
• Let trainees know that you expect participation, but also let them know that they may participate at a level that is comfortable for them
• Promote feedback – of one another and the facilitator
• Let participants know that questions are welcomed
• Insist on punctuality (Silberman, 205-208)

You should also share what you have in common with participants and use informal language to reduce you status.  Connect to trainees on a personal level.  Also, by encouraging disagreement, you address many of the group norms you have created.

It is important, too, to consider that not all students will like active learning, or possess the motivation or skills to appreciate something that, for some, may seem very out-of-the-box.  Some students simply learn better in a more structured environment.  Also, teachers might complain that they can’t cover as much material with this learning format, which could be an issue in a formal, academic setting.  (http://josotl.indiana.edu/article/viewFile/1605/1604)

Reflection

            I think most adult learners would agree that they learn best by doing, and they are more engaged to learn things they can immediately apply to their work or lives.  The research provided many case studies and gave me a number of ideas on applying some of the key concepts of experiential learning in my work.  I have always considered experiential learning to be more about activities and using multiple methods to appeal to different learning styles.  I had not really considered its relationship to the prior experience of the participants and their ability to apply this prior knowledge and what you are about to share with them, to teach new, more complicated tasks or gain more advanced skill or knowledge.

The readings, for me, served as confirmation that I have been doing the right thing in terms of creating the trainings I design and conduct for my current job.  I will be looking in the future to do more pre-class assessments and provide even more opportunities for self-directed learning.  I also will take with me from the reading the idea of beginning with the end in mind.  This goes beyond just considering what trainees should walk away with, but in maybe putting some of the “big reveal” stuff up front and building around that, rather than having a somewhat more gradual reveal.

I have many books in my professional library which have sat on a shelf for a very long time.  Some are used as reference for a particular course I am developing, but I have read, sadly, very few from cover to cover.  I was able to select a text from my personal collection and really absorb it.  I also did an Internet search to find some other opinions in terms of definitions and key elements of experiential learning.  I looked specifically for academic papers.  The process, for me, was to read the literature I had chosen, take notes, and then write the first draft.  From there, I looked over the resources and examples that Dr. Chang had provided, and made some design changes and eliminated a couple of pages of text that seemed less necessary.  Finally, I completed my table and references before uploading the document to the group blog.

Tables:

The main themes/ideas in the literature (General Themes)	Applications of the main ideas in practice (Implications)
Experience plays a role in learning	-It is easier to learn if you have a relatable knowledge base or can relate the new lesson to something you already know -Past experience also helps students to be able to work in groups, and learn from one another, as they believe they bring something valuable to the table -Previous experience lends itself to activities, as learners will be able to easily participate in role plays, even if they have limited structure -Experience allows the trainee to apply the learning
Activity-based learning increases engagement and success	-When activities focus on real-world examples, it stands to reason that trainees will be eager to learn, pay more attention, and retain more -There is much evidence to support the benefits of team building and ice breakers, which are activities -Activities can add to the content by going beyond a lecture to illustrate a point in a deeper way
Creating opportunities for real-world applications make students more invested and motivated to learn	-Learners are less-likely to think they are wasting their time if they can see the reason behind it, therefore, they will likely be more invested in the training -You can motivate learners from the very beginning if they can see the value before they even get there and know that they will be able to immediately apply what they’ve learned
Use multiple approaches, including lecture, to increase retention	-Multiple approaches allow you to address learner’s needs as to their personal, preferred methods -Some activities work better than others to illustrate points, so different approaches should be tried to find the one that works -Not all students will respond to the same approaches

References:

Silberman, Mel (w/Carol Auerbach) (1990) Active Training

The University of Texas at Austin Faculty Innovation Center.  Experiential Learning Defined.  Retrieved from https://facultyinnovate.utexas.edu/teaching/engagement/experiential-learning/defined.

Northern Illinois University Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center.  Experiential Learning.  Retrieved from http://www.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/experiential_learning.pdf.  

University of Minnesota (1999).  Experiential Learning Theory: Previous Research and New Directions.  Retrieved from http://www.d.umn.edu/~kgilbert/educ5165-731/Readings/experiential-learning-theory.pdf.

Indiana University Bloomington.  Wharton, Robert and Perry, Linda E.  The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Using Experiential Learning in the Classroom.  Retrieved from http://josotl.indiana.edu/article/viewFile/1605/1604.